Computing Technology and Service

Question: Contemporary computing can be seen as an assemblage. Discuss. To achieve this: Select TWO computing stories from the Live News exercise you fulfil in each weeks tutorial. Using Actor Network Theory as your primary tool for analysis, at a minimum: Describe the scales on which the actants in your stories act in the assemblage Discuss how these actions can enhance management functions Outline what issues/questions these actions raise. To achieve this, compare and contrast the viewpoints of a range of theorists and critics explored throughout the module. Answer: Introduction: Assemblage in computing is seen as a trend in the recent decade. Cloud computing is one such computing that uses software and hardware and gives its services over the electronic platform. Cloud computing help in storage of data in the third party data centre. To maximise the advantages of effective resources we use cloud computing. Cloud computing has its history dates back to 1950 called the remote job entry process. Amazon launched the public cloud system for the first time in the year 2006. In this essay, a rigorous analysis is made to see how cloud computing can be used as the assemblage in the contemporary scenario. There is a dynamic interaction artifact of IT, organisation, services and associated interests. Using actor-network theory and social theory the essay will illustrate ERP and Microsofts cloud-based computing development to highlight the processes of business value generation. The implications have been proposed for future based cloud technology. Computing Story of Microsoft (A Company based computing story) In case of Microsoft, the contemporary computing can be seen as an assemblage like most other IT companies. To help the enterprise customers, the Microsoft Services have introduced and developed the cloud computing system through which it can take a key step towards the user experiences, agility and economics. In case of Microsoft, the cloud computing system has played a significant role to bring pa change in its business strategy. That means this system determine how the business of Microsoft will operate and compete in the world IT market. Telstra, the leading communication company of Australia which created new cloud-based marketing strategy for its customers and for this cloud computing, was able to complete the first phase of market in three months with the help of Microsoft services and accelerated the delivery of cloud deployment solution of the full enterprise in between nine months (Awad, 2014). Why cloud computing has been adopted by Microsoft? To meet the growing demand for new solutions, new devices and new applications for the resulting data explosion and to avoid the complexity and burden in IT market, it becomes very essential for the popular IT brands like Microsoft to introduce the cloud computing. In the present fast-paced world, where the young generation are mostly attached with the technologically updated devices, data and apps, IT industry is becoming more challenging and exciting for the IT firms to compete with each other and to innovate or introduce a new product in the market. Hence, to deliver new project or product at a faster rate, to access more quick data, to manage the devices easily and to test the environment faster; cloud computing is used by Microsoft as a helpful technique(Chen, Liang and Hsu, 2015). The three key areas of cloud computing:- To deliver the broadest array and the solutions for the cloud computing through the worldwide business Microsoft operating on three key areas:- First of all, Microsoft has the vision to establish a unified platform for the modern business in future and for this Microsoft has build a cloud computing platform that is also known as Cloud OS. The Microsoft Azure is at the heart of Cloud OS and acts as a cloud computing platform that is open and flexible in nature. This enables us to build, deploy and manage the apps quickly across the global network of the datacenters which are managed by Microsoft. This application can be built by using any framework or tool and language. With these public cloud applications, the existing IT environment can easily be integrated especially for the companies that want to build their own private clouds such as Window Server, SQL Server and System Centre (Yang et al., 2014). Secondly, a cloud computing productivity that is suit in the form of office 365 is delivered by Microsoft. This offers todays deepest and best available productivity, unified communications, spanning business intelligence, social capabilities, collaboration and email. There is also a third key which is considered as a suit of business solutions through the Microsoft Dynamics which deliver the cloud computing system that is easy to use besides delivering the cloud solutions for ERP and CRM which help the fast growing organization in managing their cost(Hofmann, 2008). The related products of cloud computing:- There are different products of Microsoft, related to cloud computing, such as Microsoft Azure, Microsoft.NET, Microsoft Intune, SQL Server, Visual Studio, Windows Server 2012 R2, System Center 2012 R2 etc. consisting the solutions of Public Cloud, Hybrid Cloud, Virtualization and private cloud, Big data etc. Microsoft mainly delivers the hybrid cloud computing. There are two technical resources related to this cloud computing system. One is the planning for cloud services in configuration manager, and the other is the deploy Windows Azure Pack for the Windows server (Uden, 2013). The future of cloud computing in Microsoft:- As Microsoft has a long history of running the internet-scale services, it can easily improve its cloud computing services. However, there also exists some problems related to usage of office 365 regarding data storage and data transfer, but it is believed that in future most of the services provided by Microsoft will move to the cloud services (Houng et al., 2013). Computing Story of ERP cloud technology (A software based computing story) Evolution of ERP cloud technologies over the years: Enterprise Resource Planning is software used in the business management processes to club all the applications for managing the business. The software incorporates all the operations like HR, product planning, inventory control, accounting, distribution control, etc. There are many vendors that offer cloud-based ERP software such as Workday, Net Suite, Acumatica and others. These companies require internet connections to access the systems. The systems are not based on the older versions, and all the clients are based in the newer versions. The cloud-based ERP solutions are made by the veterans of the tradition ERP vendors (Mahmood, 2013). State of Cloud ERP Market: As time continues to pass, the ERP solutions happen to mature. From the beginning of the year 2013, we see that there are functional capabilities building up. There was a difference between Cloud-based technology and deeper functionality. There is an intense decision by the vendors to provide superior technology. For faster development, the vendors are offering solutions that are modified.ERP cloud based solutions are generally used in small companies with relatively smaller employee size because they have hardly any money for investment in IT infrastructure. The concept is changing as we see larger companies using the ERP cloud solution. Cloud-based solutions are easy to use and lack sophistication that on-premises vendor holds (Mozammel-Bin-Motalab and Al Mamun Shohag, 2011). Benefits of Cloud-Based ERP: The ERP system has both notorious failures and glorious successes. Though a lot of cost and complexity is involved in its implementation it is valued by many companies. Cost: The cloud ERP solutions are purchased through subscription model that includes support and hosting cost. The operating and initial cost is low for cloud-based ERP. As the needs of the companies evolve the solutions, the providers of clod based systems should also scale up. The vendors they provide all the backup and user support (Singh, 2013). Deployment at the rapid pace: Deployment time is reduced by the use of cloud-based technology. It offers limited options to meet most of the needs of the business. The time it takes to produce the result depends on the time it can change the pertinent data. Scalability and Flexibility: The vendors are providing extra software and functions to the companies without involving any cumbersome processes. The companies are choosing cloud-based technologies to adjust quickly to the competitive environment (Rhoton and Haukioja, 2011). Limitations of cloud: The cloud-based ERP vendors have been providing the ERP functionalities. They have also been making functions that can forecast statistics, social media and management of products. These offerings have no similarity with the ERP offerings that are hosted and workings of the traditional on-premises. There are geographical restrictions for using cloud-based ERP .the requirement of finances are not supported by many countries in which the company may reside. Cloud-based solution does not provide many options for configurations. This is the reason why many good companies are using it in purchasing, sales and delivery of accounts. The company may not be able to operate the ERP solutions by the highly developed applications and business processes (Shadravan, 2013). When using cloud-based ERP solution the company is willing to trust a third party provider to share its information. Oracle and SAP have invested a lot on the security but failed in vain. The providers are giving guarantee that the data will be stored in the data centres. Many human resources software holds the very sensitive data on employees that are crucial and leads to competition. A company is likely to adopt an ERP based cloud software when there is rapid expansion of the availability of functionality and lower risk due to adoption (Shroff, 2010). Conclusion:- Hence, from the above discussion it can be said that in this technologically updated modern phase, where the contemporary computing can be seen as an assemblage in most of the IT companies, the cloud computing services are helpful to overcome the complexities in IT market as well as to meet the technological needs of the present generation. Different types of cloud computing based services are provided by different types of companies, and different types of cloud computing services and technologies have its own unique features, advantages and disadvantages. Hence, to overcome their limitations and to provide better services, at present most of the contemporary computing can be seen as assemblage that provide more improved technological based services in the whole world. References Awad, H. (2014). Investigating Cloud ERP Challenges in Public Universities in the Middle East Field Study. IOTCC, 2(3), p.12. Chen, C., Liang, W. and Hsu, H. (2015). A cloud computing platform for ERP applications. Applied Soft Computing, 27, pp.127-136. Hofmann, P. (2008). ERP is Dead, Long Live ERP. IEEE Internet Computing, 12(4), pp.84-88. Houng, K., Shanmugam, B., Samy, G., Albakri, S. and Ahmad, A. (2013). Security Model for Microsoft Based Mobile Sales Management Application in Private Cloud Computing. IJ-CLOSER, 2(3). Mahmood, Z. (2013). Cloud computing. London: Springer. Mozammel-Bin-Motalab, A. and Al Mamun Shohag, S. (2011). Cloud Computing and the Business Consequences of ERP use. International Journal of Computer Applications, 28(8), pp.31-37. Rhoton, J. and Haukioja, R. (2011). Cloud computing architected. [Tunbridge Wells, Kent]: Recursive Press. Shadravan, D. (2013). Microsoft SharePoint 2013 inside out. Redmond, Wash.: Microsoft Press. Shroff, G. (2010). Enterprise cloud computing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Singh, G. (2013). A Study Of Impact Of Erp And Cloud Computing In Business Enterprises. SaarbruÃÅ'ˆcken: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Uden, L. (2013). 7th International Conference on Knowledge Management in Organizations: Service and Cloud Computing. Berlin: Springer. Yang, L., Cao, J., Tang, S., Han, D. and Suri, N. (2014). Run Time Application Repartitioning in Dynamic Mobile Cloud Environments. IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing, pp.1-1.

Re-Thinking Big Box Stores free essay sample

Rethinking Big-Box Stores In her essay Big Box Stores Are Bad for Main Street, Betsy Taylor focuses not on the economic effects of large chain stores but on the effects these stores have on the soul of America. She argues that stores like Home Depot, Target, and Wal-Mart are bad for America because they draw people out of downtown shopping districts and cause them to focus exclusively on consumption. In contrast, she believes that small businesses are good for America because they provide personal attention, foster community Interaction, and make each city unique. But Taylors argument is ultimately unconvincing because It Is based on nostalgia† on Idealized mages of a quaint Maln Street†rather than on the roles that businesses play In consumers lives and communities. By Ignoring the more complex, economically driven relationships between large chain stores and their communities, Taylor Incorrectly assumes that simply getting rid of big-box stores would have a posltlve effect on Americas communities. We will write a custom essay sample on Re-Thinking Big Box Stores or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Taylors use of colorful language reveals that she has a nostalgic view of American society and does not understand economic realities. In her first paragraph, Taylor refers to a big-box store as a 25-acre slab of concrete with a 100,000 square foot box of stuff that lands on a town, evoking images of a monolithic monster crushing the American way of life (1011). But her Sanchez 1 Opening summa- rizes the articles purpose and thesis. Thesis expresses Sanchezs judgment of Taylors article. Signal phrase intro- duces quotations from the source; Sanchez uses an MLA in-text citation. Marginal annotations indicate MLA-style formatting and effective writing. Source: Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2007). This paper has been updated to follow the style guidelines in the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed. (2009). Source: Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2007). assessment oversimplifies a complex issue. Taylor does not consider that many downtown business districts failed long before chain stores moved in, when factories and mills closed and workers lost their Jobs. In cities with struggling economies, big-box stores can actually provide much-needed Jobs. Similarly, while Taylor blames big-box stores for harming local economies by asking for tax breaks, free roads, and other perks, she doesnt cknowledge that these stores also enter into economic partnerships with the surrounding communities by offering financial benefits to schools and hospitals. Taylors assumption that shopping In small businesses Is always better for the customer also seems driven by nostalgia for an old-fashioned Maln Street rather than by the facts. While she may be right that many small businesses offer personal service and are responsive to customer complaints, she does not consider that many customers appreciate the service at big-box stores. Just as customer service Is better t some small businesses than at others, It Is Impossible to generalize about service at all big-box stores. For example, customers depend on the lenient return pollcles and the wide variety of products at stores Ilke Target and Home Depot. Taylor blames big-box stores for encouraging American hyper-consumerism, but she oversimplifies by equating big-box stores with bad values and small businesses with realities of American society today. Big-box stores do not force Americans to buy more. By offering lower prices in a convenient setting, however, they allow consumers to save time and purchase

Edward Waters College Admissions - ACT Scores, Costs...

Edward Waters College Admissions - ACT Scores, Costs... Edward Waters College Admissions Overview: Edward Waters Colleges admissions are not highly selectivestudents with solid grades and test scores have a good chance of being admitted.  In addition to submitting an application (either online or through the mail), interested students will need to submit official scores from the SAT or ACT, and high school transcripts. For more information, be sure to visit the schools website; also, campus visits are always welcome so prospective students can determine if Edward Waters is a good match. Admissions Data (2016): Edward Waters College Acceptance Rate: 58%Test Scores 25th / 75th PercentileSAT Critical Reading: 370 / 450SAT Math: 350 / 460SAT Writing: - / -What these SAT numbers meanACT Composite: 15  / 18ACT English: 12 / 17ACT Math: 15 / 17What these ACT numbers mean Edward Waters College Description: Edward Waters College is a four-year, private, historically black college located in Jacksonville, Florida. Founded in 1866, it is the oldest private institution of higher education in the state. EWC is affiliated with the African Methodist Episcopal Church and has over 900 students supported by a student faculty ratio of 17 to 1. The college offers Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, and Bachelor of Business Administration degrees in eight academic areas. Students stay active outside of the classroom through participating in a range of student clubs and organizations, as well as intramural basketball, volleyball, flag football, and Ping-Pong. The college also has a Greek system with four sororities and five fraternities. Varsity athletic teams compete in the NAIA Gulf Coast Athletic Conference, and the college’s volleyball, softball, baseball and women’s basketball teams have all won championships. EWC is proud of its Triple Threat Marching Band, and The Best of Flo rida Schools 2005 named EWC’s Purple Thunder Dance Squad as the Best Non-Traditional Dance Squad. Enrollment (2016): Total Enrollment: 3,062  (all undergraduate)Gender Breakdown: 46% Male / 54% Female29% Full-time Costs (2016 - 17): Tuition and Fees: $13,525Room and Board: $7,282Other Expenses: $4,276Total Cost: $25,083 Edward Waters College Financial Aid (2015  - 16): Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 98%Percentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 97%Loans: 74%Average Amount of AidGrants: $10,791Loans: $6,281 Academic Programs: Most Popular Majors:  Biology, Business Administration, Criminal Justice, Psychology Transfer, Graduation and Retention Rates: First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 57%Transfer Out Rate: 20%4-Year Graduation Rate: 8%6-Year Graduation Rate: 26% Intercollegiate Athletic Programs: Mens Sports:  Football, Track and Field, Cross Country, Basketball, Golf, BaseballWomens Sports:  Basketball, Volleyball, Track and Field, Softball, Cross Country Data Source: National Center for Educational Statistics If You Like Edward Waters, You May Also Like These Schools: Clark Atlanta University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphAlbama State University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphBenedict College: Profile  Albany State University: Profile  University of Florida: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphUniversity of Miami: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphShaw University: Profile  Savannah State University: Profile  Florida International University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphJacksonsville University: Profile  Barry University: Profile

Project management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Project management - Assignment Example Project Management Office (PMO) A Project Management Office (PMO) can be termed as a centralised organisational unit or body which is likely involve in different phases of a project. The body is the core entity that ensures to provide basic administrative along with advisory and consulting support to the overall operations of the project. Moreover, a PMO also involves in strategic and grievance services that are required to successfully achieve the desired goals and objectives of the project (Canfield University, 2004). With regard to the case scenario, Volkswagen (VW) Mexico had founded an effective PMO which was principally established in order to monitor and control operations performed in the Jetta component assembly line. The PMO of the company played a major role for the project in terms of coordinating an effective financial plan along with appropriate schedule for each project function. Moreover, the unit also contributed by playing a crucial role in terms of procuring and ma naging adequate resources to ensure effective performance within the Mexico project assembly line (Project Management Institute, 2012). Project Control System Project control system generally incorporates various steps performed by different operational and management groups which facilitate to successfully accomplish the ultimate objectives of a project (Public procurement Guide, 2008). With regard to the project control system of Jetta assembly line, VW Mexico had highly focused on six major steps including programming or estimation, identification, budgeting, cost control, scheduling of project activities and performance measurement. In relation to scheduling of project activities, VW Mexico component’s design strategy for installing Jetta assembly line would be completed within 21 months in a budget of around USD3.3 million. The work breakdown structure of the project is segregated into separate elements such as defining project which entails stage gate review and stakeho lder development. Subsequently, the planning stage would entail design and new suppliers along with preparing the blueprint of the entire work activities. In addition, the phase of training, implementation and risk assessment would be comprehensively followed to ensure complete success of the project. Moreover, risk assessment phase would facilitate to ensure optimisation of the undertaken project along with ascertaining proper commencement of the production of Axel, Motor and Corner module (Project Management Institute, 2012). In this regard, it can be said that one of the critical components of project control system is to mitigate situations when delay occurs in the project schedule. In relation to Jetta assembly line project as well, the project manager needs to remain cautious to avoid any kind of delays. The project manager in such scenarios can take control by preparing a work breakdown structure for each and every activity of the project. Moreover, the project manager needs to carefully and continuously monitor any delay creating activity and if by

Staffing Organizations-Part 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Staffing Organizations-Part 2 - Essay Example The Gourmet Coffee Shop is a small organization and does not have the budget or staff to run its own staffing purposes and? therefore? an outside recruitment group can give the coffee shop with a full level of service? For example these agencies can help in advertising, identifying recruitment needs, along with background checks, examining the references of candidates etc. Using external recruitment agencies can be a little expensive, but on the other hand? it is the most sensible decision for company that does not have its own recruitment purpose. A recruitment financial plan will be formulated, which would include the staffing price, equipment and supplies cost along with salaries and benefits. After the recruiting and organizing period is complete, the next strategy of the coffee shop will be to choose â€Å"targeted versus open recruitment†, as the business is seeking particular individuals with certain, skills, knowledge, capacity and other features. Utilizing the open re cruitment method will entail a high quantity of candidates making the selection procedure exceptionally difficult. 2. Create a Communication Message (Realistic, Brand or Targeted) to Attract Applicants to the Open Position. When creating a communication message, it needs to be focused on being attractive and appealing to the target applicants. The main goal here is to capture the attention of potential applicants. Once this is achieved, the next step is to maintain their attention. This stage consists of the communication medium and message notifying the vacancy of jobs. â€Å"The   communication   process   consists   of   a   message   being   sent   and   received.  The message maybe verbal or non-verbal.   The   same   basic   principles   apply   whether   humans,   animals,   other   forms of   life,   or   combinations   of   these   are   involved† (The Communication Process, n.d. par.1). The message can be reali stic, targeted or branded. The medium for distribution can be a job posting, potential supervisors and peers? and extra written documents. These messages have to be expressed through some medium to the recipient. It is necessary that this message should be recognized by the recipient in the same meaning as intended by the sender. He or she must react in a time structure. Therefore, the communication is a two way method and is incomplete without a feedback from the receiver to the correspondent on how well the message is decoded by him. 3. Select the Communication Medium for the Recruitment Effort and Explain why that Method was Chosen Over Others. Communication can happen through several mediums. These mediums are assembled into four main types, which are verbal, written, visual communications and nonverbal. Whereas a number of mediums of communication, for instance talking, are much clearer than others, such as body language, every medium is significant for communication among peop le. In this case the select physical media. Physical media refers to a channel where the individual who is talking can be heard and seen by the viewers. The entire point here is to be capable of not only hearing the messages but also to watching and interpreting the body language. This does not require being two-way channels. In certain conditions the receiver expects physical communication. â€Å"If a message is perceived as important to the receiver they expect to hear it live from their

Media And Growth Of Bacteria

Media And Growth Of Bacteria To grow and reproduce, microorganisms require nutrients as their source of energy and certain environmental conditions. Adaptation to different habitats has been acquired by microbes living in the exposed environment. In the laboratory, however, these requirements are to be met by a culture medium. Therefore, media preparation is an essential aspect in microbial growth. There is a wide variety of media which can be used for laboratory purposes. Generally, similar procedures can be used in the preparation of media. In this practical, YT broth is prepared from yeast extract, trypton, NaCl and agar. YT broth is a commonly used bacterial Esherichia coli culture media in molecular biology. Usually, YT medium is applicable for phage DNA production. Compared to LB broth, YT is a richer medium in which it supports higher cell density and a longer growth period for E. coli. Bacteria are the most abundant and most important biological component as they involve in the transformation and mineralization of organic matter in the biosphere (Cho Adam, 1988; Pomeroy Wiebe, 2001). Generally, growth is defined as an increase in number of cells. Bacterial cell growth depends upon a large number of cellular reactions such as transforming energy. Syntheses of small molecules are performed to build macromolecules and to provide various cofactors and coenzymes for biochemical reactions. Polymerization of monomers builds the macromolecules in the bacterial cell. As the macromolecules accumulate in the cell, they are assembled into new structures with specific functions such as the cell wall, cytoplasmic membranes, ribosomes and flagella, if to name a few, and eventually lead to cell division. E. coli is used as a test organism in this practical for investigating the bacterial growth. Such a growing rod shaped cell bacterium elongates to approximately twice their original length and then forms a partition that constricts the cell into two daughter cells. This process is known as binary fission. A partition called the septum is formed by the inward growth of the cytoplasmic membrane and the cell wall from opposite directions. The septum continues to grow inwards until the two daughter cells are pinched off. When one cell separates from to form two daughter cells, one generation has occurred and the time required for binary fission is known as the generation time. Under the best nutritional conditions, the generation time of a laboratory E. coli culture is approximately 20 minutes (Buettner et al., 1973). The growth stages of bacterial cells are described in a growth curve consisting of the lag phase, exponential phase, stationary phase and death phase (Zwietering et al., 1990). In the lag phase, the bacterial cell begins to grow only after a period of time due to new environment being inoculated. The time interval of lag phase depends on the growth conditions and the history of the inoculum. If the growing culture is transferred into the same medium under the same conditions, there is no lag phase and exponential phase starts immediately. However, if the inoculum transferred is taken from the stationary phase in an old culture, lag phase is observed. This is because certain essentials of the cell have depleted and time is required for biosynthesis of new constituents. The lag phase is also observed when the cells are transferred from a rich culture medium to a poorer culture medium. In the poorer condition, the cells need to synthesize the essential metabolites that are not present i n the previous medium. Thus, time is needed by the cells to produce new enzymes. In the exponential phase, the cell divides to form two cells, both the total cell number and mass double but there is no change in the average cell mass. The cells are said to be in their healthiest state. The rate of exponential growth varies widely among microorganisms. The rate is influenced by environmental conditions and the genetic characteristics of the organism itself. In the stationary phase, the essential nutrients of the culture medium are used up and at the same time, the wastes produced by the bacterial cells accumulate in the culture medium. Thus, growth is inhibited. The exponential growth is ceased and the cells reach the stationary phase. There is no net increase or decrease in the cell number and hence the growth rate of the cells is zero. The cells enter the death phase of the growth cycle after reaching the stationary phase whereby cell lysis occurs. Figure 1: Typical growth curve of a bacterial population. The growth of E.coli is investigated under various cultural conditions, including effect of pH, temperature and aeration). Effect of pH is ascertained by preparing media of different pH values. Temperature is always a potentially limiting factor by affecting all chemical and biochemical processes and thus is viewed as an interactive factor (Pomeroy Wiebe, 2001). Aeration is done by shaking so that air space volume can be increased. As such, good and excellent aeration is stimulated. MATERIALS Media components (yeast extract, trypton, NaCl and agar), E. coli culture, 20x petri dish, 5250 ml conical flask and 1100 ml conical flask, plus cotton wool plugs in aluminium foil, Whatman paper METHOD Media Preparation The five 250 ml conical flasks and one 100 ml conical flasks were prepared and labelled as M1-M10 on the first day of practical. 100 ml of YT broth was prepared in 250 ml flasks, with the composition as trypton 1.6%(w:v), yeast extract 1%(w:v), and NaCl 0.5%(w:v). The pH was adjusted to those shown in table 2.1, followed by autoclaving. 500 ml agar was prepared in 1L flask, in which composed of YT broth and agar (13.5 g/L). The prepared medium was autoclaved. The agar was poured on 20 petri dishes. Inoculation Day 2 was begun with inoculating M1 to M8 with 1.0ml E. coli, while M9 and M10 as control set. Incubation was performed at 37Â °C for 24 hours. Whatman paper was dried overnight. Analysis Prior to an analysis, the culture was well shaken and the sampling was done under aseptic condition. Measurement of cell density and variable cell (as colony forming units, cfu) After the overnight incubation, a 3.0ml aliquot of each culture was taken and the absorbance was measured at 660nm. M9 and M10 was used as the blank. Data obtained was tabulated. Measurement of final pH of broth The final pH of the cell culture was measured. The results were also recorded in table 2.1. Measurement of CFU At day 3, a serial dilution was done from 10-2, 10-4, 10-6, 10-8 to 10-10. Hockey stick spreading technique was performed to plate out the sample. Two replicates were done for each plate, labelled a and b respectively. The culture was incubated at 37Â °C for 24 hours. The changes were observed and recorded on the next day, and thereby determining the CFU, as what recorded in table 2.2(a) and 2.2(b). Measurement of biomass The Whatman paper dried was weighed and the initial weight was recorded. A 10ml aliquot of the content of the flasks was filtered using the Whatman paper by washing with distilled water. The paper together with the content was dried in oven at 70Â °C overnight. On the next day, the final weight was measured and thereby obtaining the net weight gain of the filter paper. The result was recorded in table 2.3. RESULTS The pH change and the absorbance values measured were recorded in table 2.1. Flask M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Pre-incubation pH 4.0 7.0 10.0 7.0 4.0 7.0 10.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 Post-incubation pH 3.96 7.08 10.16 7.16 4.13 7.21 9.93 7.73 7.12 7.14 OD660nm 0.108 1.267 0.01 0.916 0.191 1.906 0.056 1.812 0.0 0.0 Growth condition No shaking (with air space) No shaking (without air space) Shaking at 200 rpm (with air space) Shaking at 200 rpm (without air space) Table 2.1: pH change and absorbance measured for M1 to M10 CFU for plate labelled a and for plate b was calculated using the formula below, which was then recorded in table 2.2(a) and 2.2(b) respectively. CFU = colony number x dilution factor = x cfu/0.1ml = ? cfu/ml Table 2.2(a): CFU for plate labelled a Flask M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Dilution (10-4) 55 22 0 >300 1 161 0 >300 0 0 CFU/ml 5500000 2200000 0 TMTC 100000 16100000 0 TMTC 0 0 Dilution (10-6) 0 13 0 185 0 24 0 3 0 0 CFU/ml 0 130000000 0 1850000000 0 240000000 0 30000000 0 0 Flask M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Dilution (10-4) 13 >300 0 >300 0 >300 0 >300 0 0 CFU/ml 1300000 TMTC 0 TMTC 0 TMTC 0 TMTC 0 0 Dilution (10-6) 0 3 0 89 0 32 0 4 0 0 CFU/ml 0 30000000 0 890000000 0 320000000 0 40000000 0 0 Table 2.2(b): CFU for plate labelled b The biomass was calculated using the formula below and was recorded in table 2.3. Biomass (g/ml) = Flask M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Initial weight of filter paper 1.14 1.16 1.14 1.17 1.19 1.15 1.16 1.19 1.16 1.17 Dried weight of filter paper 1.15 1.17 1.14 1.17 1.20 1.17 1.16 1.19 1.16 1.17 Mass Difference 0.01 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.02 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Biomass (mg /ml) 0.001 0.001 0.0 0.0 0.001 0.002 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Table 2.3: Biomass DISCUSSION From the tables in the result section and observation, we analyze the growth of E. coli under various pH and aeration condition. Measuring OD and calculating CFU give relevant and supportive information to our experiment. However, the biomass calculated is not applicable to accurately ascertain the factors affecting the growth as some errors occurred during the measurement of biomass, probably. Cell density and variable cell OD stands for optical density which indicates the wavelength of light. In this practical, OD660 measures the light absorbance by E. coli cultures, which correspond to the E. coli cell density in a given volume. OD660 determines whether the cells are ready for making cell stocks or as a competent cell. In other words, it can be said that in this part, OD660 was used to ascertain the quantity of E. coli grown in the YT broth after incubating overnight at 37Â °C. Flasks M1 to M8 were inoculated with 1.0 ml of E. coli culture. The result showed that growth had occurred. On the other hand, M9 and M10 served as the control set in which inoculation of bacteria was not applied, in addition to acting as blank during analysis with spectrophotometer. From table 2.1, it was shown that the OD of both M9 and M10 appeared to be zero. This shows that there was no sign of growth of E. coli in the two flasks. Spreading of plates was done in class II laminar flow cabinet. Sterile operation in cell culture is vital where it can affect the CFU of E. coli. This minimizes the chance of culture contamination. On top of that, the safety of the operator is ensured (Betler, 2004). From the aspect of CFU, as what shown in table 2.2(a) and 2.2(b), there was abundant of cells in M2, M4, M6 and M8. The cell density was still high even with the dilution of 10-6. Therefore, it was determined that E. coli has the optimum growth pH at 7.0. Effect of broths pH on growth Different growth condition gives different OD values. Optimum pH of E.coli growing in a culture at 37oC is around 7.0. E.coli is not able to tolerate under extremely alkaline and acidic environments because most of the enzymes found in the bacterium are very pH-sensitive. These enzymes carry out the important processes in E.coli. When there is extreme change in pH, enzymes in E.coli become denatured. Denature of enzymes in E.coli can lead to all sorts of interruptions to biochemical processes or even causes death of the E.coli. From table 2.1, it was found that there was no growth of E.coli in both flask M3 and M7 with pH 10.0; as the absorbance measured were 0.01 and 0.056 respectively. Whereas, there were some E.coli grow in flask M1 and M5 with pH 4.0, which have OD recorded 0.108 and 0.191 respectively. Thus, it can be concluded that E.coli seems to be more tolerate to lower pH (acidic condition) than higher pH (alkaline condition). Since pH 7.0 is the optimum pH for the growth of E.coli at 37oC, there were many colony of E.coli growing on the agar plates which spread with the sample from flask M2, M4, M6 and M8. There are some changes in the pH before and after the incubation. This is because there is formation of inhibitory products such as organic acids during the growth of E.coli in the YT nutrient broth. Effect of aeration on growth pH of medium is determined by medium composition, buffers, cellular metabolism and aeration. NaCl is used as buffer, where the depletion of this organic buffer will cause an E. coli reaches its maximum pH limit. Hence, care has to be taken to balance the organic buffer, sugar content and aeration medium because low aeration leads to production of acids; High aeration causes cells to use organic acids as carbon source, and thus increases the pH of medium. In brief, selected aeration also helps in maintaining cells pH. Theoretically, shake flask incubator reduces the solid and liquid inter-phase, thus minimizing the mass transfer. Increased speed and momentum cause cells to lyse among themselves. Increased speed also increases the formation of foam, thus trapping gas and resulting less gas in the liquid. Since cells require nutrients for survival, absence of gas as nutrient source will cause cells to die. Hence, shaking flask actually plays an important role in bringing an improvement to mass transfer between the gas phase outside the shake flask and the liquid phase inside the shake flask. Shake flask incubator can provide a suitable environment by ensuring sufficient transfer of oxygen gas to the cell culture by appropriate mixing. Agitation will increase the aeration of the bacterial growth of E.coli. This is because oxygen is important for high density growth of E.coli cells. Agitation is controlled by the shaking speed of a shaker incubator. Thus, from the observation, Whatman paper with content from M6 has bigger biomass than others. The biomass of M6 is 1.0 mg/ml. This is because flask M6 has been shaken at 200rpm and the flask contains air space which helps in the growth of E.coli cells. Therefore, the media without shaking or without air space or without both of these growth conditions has less growth of E.coli. Thus, M6 has the best growth condition for E.coli if compared with other media. However, from the observation in this experiment, there is more E.coli colony grows in M8 (growth condition with shaking at 200rpm but without air space) than M6 (growth condition with both shaking at 200rpm and with air space) in the culture with serial dilution 10-4. Theoretically, there should be less E.coli colony grows on the plate which spread with the culture from M8 since flask M8 has less flavour growth condition for the growth of E.coli. This unexpected observation may be because the sample with serial dilution 10-4 is not well shaken before take 1.0ml of aliquot to spread on the plate. From our result, it was again determined that the growth rate of E. coli is not affected by shaking. This is proven through our experiment where there was no significant difference in yields with or without shaking cultures. When air is supplied, however, shaking cultures shows a higher yield than static cultures. The main purpose of shaking cultures at 20 rpm is to mix thoroughly the nutrient concentration in broth, with constant temperature, 37Â °C. 37Â °C is the optimum growth temperature for E.coli. Shaking prevents cells localizing at the bottom of the broth which causes a faster depletion of nutrient as time passes. Nutrients still present in the broth but cells may not accessible to them. Hence, shaking minimizes areas of high and low nutrient concentration. The amplitude of the vibration controls the intensity of fluid mixing. Shaking broth brings advantage to non-motile cells because it enables the metabolism rate to continue, in addition to benefiting mobile cells by redu cing energy on mobility. Besides, shaking increases the aeration of broth which leads to a higher yield of E. coli. From the OD values, OD at pH 7 shows the highest value for both shaking and non-shaking media because pH 7 is the most suitable medium for growth of E.coli. However, pH 7 from shaking broth has a comparatively higher OD reading compare to non-shaking broth due to shaking enhances the growth of E.coli. However, OD of pH 4 is far higher than OD of pH 10 because E.coli can still grow on pH 4, but pH 10 does not really support growth of E.coli. As for M9 and M10, both broths do not show any OD reading value because no E.coli culture is added into both broths. When pH and vibration are held constant (i.e. pH 7 with shaking), broth with aeration shows a higher OD value compare to non-aeration. This means that a higher E.coli cell density in aerated broth compare to non-aerated broth. When other factors are held constant, air space does not significantly affect E.coli yields, because E.coli is a facultative anaerobe, which means E.coli is able to produce energy during aerobic respiration and switch to anaerobic respiration when oxygen is depleting in the environment. Thus, E.coli grows in both with or without air space broth. Supposedly, colony forming unit (CFU) in plates from medium with air space has a higher growth amount compare to medium with no air-space. This is because E.coli cells produce a large quantity of acetic acid with no air-space, and thus reducing the pH of broth and does not favour the growth of E.coli. Acetic acid inhibits growth condition under anaerobic growth condition. However, according to our result, when the pH and vibration are held constant (both of pH 7 and with no shaking), CFU is greater in non air space compare to with air space. This may be due to errors occur where the mouth of broth is not tightly covered which leads to entranc e of oxygen molecules into the broth. CONCLUSION Sterile medium such as sterile YT broth is essential for bacteria growth. The optimum pH for the growth of E. coli is 7.0. Excellent aeration promotes growth of bacteria to a further extent than what good aeration does. QUESTIONS Write a flow chart for the above protocol before you start work. Label all the conical flasks from M1 to M10 Add 100ml YT broth to flasks M1 to M3 and M5 to M7 Adjust the pH of the media to 4.0,7.0 and 10.0 using either HCL or NaOH Autoclave and allow to cool to room temperature For flask M4 to M8, autoclave 200ml of the medium in a bigger container and then pour the cooled medium into the sterile 100ml conical flask Inoculate flasks M1 to M8 with 1.0ml of E.coli culture under aseptic conditions Incubate with or without shaking as indicated from the table Prepare M9 and M10 under the same conditions as for flask M2 and M6, but do not add any inoculum Prepare and autoclave the agar After an overnight incubation,take 3.0ml aliquot of each culture and measure the absorbance at 660nm Do a serial dilution from 10-1 to 10-5 in a sterile microfuge tube and plate out 0.1ml of the sample at 10-4 to 10-5 in YT agar media Incubate at 370C overnight Determine the cfu/ml of the original culture and tabulate data Measure the final pH of the cell culture and tabulate results Filter 10ml aliquot of the content of the flasks using pre-weighted Whatman paper dried in an oven at 800C overnight Measure the net weight gain of the filter paper as an indication of biomass Tabulate results Discuss your results with respect to the effect of pH of the media and aeration on bacterial growth and reasons for your observations. In addition to nutrients, the pH of the growth medium is also important for E.coli growth rate and cell density. The optimal growth pH for E.coli is near neutral. E.coli cells can grow reasonably well over a range of three pH units (from pH 5.5 to 8.5). Extreme pH beyond this range will significantly decrease the cell growth rate and may sometimes even cause cell death. The minimum and maximum growth pHs for E.coli are pH 4.4 and 9.0 respectively. E.coli cells appear to tolerate a more neutral pH better than a high pH. This is clearly shown as E.coli grows well at pH 7 as shown on plate M2, M4,M6, and M8.In fact, extended exposure of E.coli cells to a high pH causes cell lysis. This is the reason why no colonies were found on plate M3 and M7. At the saturation or stationary phase, the pH of the E.coli culture in commonly used media is near its pH limits. pH is another limiting factor for cell growth in addition to nutrition exhaustion and accumulation of toxic metabolites. E.coli cel ls can also use sugars such as glycerol and glucose as carbon or energy sources. When the E.coli cells use these sugars as carbon sources, they will produce acetic acid and therefore lower the medium pH. Carefully balancing the sugar contents, and aeration conditions can maintain the culture medium pH near E.coli optimum growth pH or within the range of the three pH units. Low aeration conditions lead the cells to produce acids. High aeration conditions allow the cells to use organic acids as carbon source and increase medium pH. Selected aeration conditions can also help cells maintain its medium pH. Do your data on absorbance at 660nm correlate with the cfu/ml and biomass data? Explain. The data on the absorbance at 660nm correlates with cfu/ml as a lower OD660nm gives a high cfu/ml and vice versa. But the data of absorbance does not correlate with the biomass. Despite the inherent inaccuracy of the method, if the procedure is adequately controlled and calibrated the estimation of microbial numbers by optical density should be sufficiently accurate for use in preparing inoculum for cfu/ml testing. Would you expect to obtain the same data if you were to scale up the experiment using a 1000L fermenter? Explain your answer. No, as the size and volume of the fermentor increases, the volume and density of the E.coli culture will increase too so the CFU/ml will also increase.

Flight 587 Crash Investigation

This paper examines the disaster of American Airlines flight 587 on November 12, 2001 in New York City. At least 265 people died in this tragedy making its one of the major disasters in modern aviation history. In the immediate aftermath of the accident, there were great fears that this could be another outcome of a terrorist attack on the U. S soil. Official investigations, however, quickly ruled out any terrorist involvement. Findings indicated that the weak wake turbulence caused by an airplane that took off slightly before flight 587 initiated an unfortunate chain of events that resulted in the catastrophe.The final report of the NTSB held the faulty rudder control system design of Airbus A300-600, and the inadequate pilot training program of American Airlines to be chiefly responsible. In addition, the allegedly quirky response behavior of the first officer at the controls of the airplane is considered a critical factor. However, many people, common men and experts alike, are no t convinced of the validity of the NTSB investigations. Introduction On the morning of November 12, 2001, Tom Lynch, a retired firefighter, is on Rockaway Beach Boulevard taking his regular morning exercise march.He watches an airplane complete a banked turn and start towards the ocean. Then, all of a sudden, he sees a small explosion in the fuselage behind the wing. Two more seconds elapse and suddenly there is a second explosion, engulfing most of the plane in flames. It was the American Airlines Flight 587. Two months after 9/11 – this Airbus 300-600 left John F. Kennedy International Airport en route to Santa Domingo, the Dominican Republic. Less than three minutes after takeoff, the aircraft crashed in a blazing inferno in the heart of the neighborhood of Bell Harbor, Queens. All 251 passengers along with 9 crew members perished.Most remarkably, only five people died on the ground. 44 fire trucks and 200 firefighters were rushed to the scene. Soon, the disaster of AA Fli ght 587 would be found not to be due to terrorism, but to mechanical failure. However, in the stark post 9/11 environment of the day, it was difficult for many people to believe that planes could still fall from the sky for reasons unrelated to terrorism. Feelings and fears were especially strong and these were exacerbated this fresh tragic event. As the author S. D. Manning (2003) put it, â€Å"This crash jarred a city (and a nation) still scarred and numb from the agony it has already endured†The Investigation Tonight, American holds its collective breath, Prays this nightmare is due to mechanical failure, Not premeditated design. The sheer irony would shame Kafka – It's not the disaster itself but its cause That bothers us, enslaves us to out TV's; We pray that it’s something man-made, not man. – L. D. Brodsky. (2002). As the aircraft climbed from John F. Kennedy airport, some people on the ground saw an explosion and fire on the underneath side of the aircraft, which was quickly followed by parts falling off the aircraft, including the vertical stabilizer and rudder.During the aircraft's fall, engines came away from the wings. Falling separately, one engine landed on Beach 129th Street the other engine on Beach 126th. The plane then plunged to the ground on the narrow strip of land known as Rockaway, in Belle Harbor at Queens. The plane's tail broke off and fell into Jamaica Bay, more than a mile from the primary crash site. Although a few stray remnants landed here and there, the fuselage and wings pounded into the home on the corner of Beach 131st Street and Newport Avenue. The plane's impact, subsequent explosions, and fire destroyed other homes.The rudder and the tail fin were found first along the flight path, followed by the engines and then the main wreckage. According to the NTSB, the tail fin and rudder of the plane sheared off as it accelerated. The aircraft began a climbing turn over Jamaica Bay when it encountered tu rbulence caused by the wake vortices generated by a Japan Airlines 747 that had taken off just one minute forty-five seconds earlier. Records from the flight data recorder later recovered from the crash site showed that the turbulence had cause movements of flight 587's rudder, part of which, together with the vertical tail fin, became detached from the aircraft.Control of the aircraft was lost and it fell from the sky. This was the second deadliest crash in US history, but it also, â€Å"was the first example where we had an in-flight failure of a major structural component of an aircraft that in fact was made of composite materials,† as NTSB Chairwoman Marion Blakley would assert later. From the outset, the investigation into the loss of the American Airlines aircraft was conducted on the premise that it was an accident. There seemed to be no immediate indication it was anything else, except for the numerous eyewitness accounts of fire and explosion just before the aircraft plummeted.Officials were keen to reiterate that there was nothing to suggest any foul play had been involved in the loss of the aircraft. Coming so soon after the September 11th outrages, another terrorist assault in America would have been untenable and morally damaging. The President had declared war on terrorism. Congress had been actively involved in developing new legislation to contain the threat that al-Qaeda posed to civil aviation operations. The possibility of a terrorist strike seemed a little farfetched in the state of intensely heightened vigilance that the air transportation industry was in during the aftermath of 9/11.Even if there was foul play involved, it could have been more of a sabotage than the explosion of a bomb. Though terrorism was suspected by everyone, it could not be substantiated. The main difficulty of associating the loss of AA587 with terrorism was the manner of its destruction. If the tail assembly did lie at the root of the problem, then sabotage when the aircraft was on the ground appeared a more likely scenario than a suitcase bomb or a suicidal passenger detonating a device on board the plane. Accident scenarios had to be explored first.Marion Blakley said in an interview on CNN Newsnight on the day of the crash: One of the things that we're very committed to doing is to have a full investigation from a system standpoint, mechanical standpoint, looking at the history of this flight, the crew, the human factors that may have been involved. Immediately following the loss of flight 587, a 40-strong NTSB Go Team under the Investigator-in-Charge Robert Benzon was sent to the site of the crash (NTSB News, 2001). As was the norm, their work was supported by other agencies and companies considered appropriate by the board.The NTSB used the American Airlines facility at Tulsa for a detailed examination of the aircraft engines. No evidence was found of a fire, bird strike, or other pre-impact malfunction. The auxiliary power unit ( used to power the aircraft when it is on the ground) was sent to Honeywell, its manufacturer. Nothing wrong was found with the unit. The tail fin and rudder assemblies underwent visual inspection in New York before being sent to the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia.Extensive preliminary tests at Langley sought to identify whether the vertical stabilizer and rudder had had any damage or faults before the accident. None were found. Although the flight data recorder indicated significant rudder movement before the crash, there was nothing to show why this had happened (NTSB News 2002). That both engines separated from the wings as the aircraft fell from a comparatively low height posed another question: Could the engines have been sabotaged, if not by an explosive device, then by some other means so far undetected by the NTSB investigators?â€Å"Investigators suspect a catastrophic engine event as the likely cause of an airline crash Monday in New York,† went CN N. com’s headline on the very day of the accident. However, the primary focus of the investigation eventually shifted to the rudder system. The NTSB team flew to France to work with experts from Airbus Industrie, the aircraft's manufacturer, at their headquarters in Toulouse. The purpose of this visit was to study at firsthand the mechanism of the rudder system and to simulate the pattern of the aerodynamic loads that may have affected the vertical stabilizer during the failure of flight 587.If the investigators could not identify a possible mechanical or structural reason for the accident, they would have been left considering the impossible. Even though they may not have found any terrorist involvement in the loss of AA flight 587, in the absence any other demonstrable reason for the crash, terrorism would be back in focus. Flight History Flight 587 was an Airbus A300-600, Registration Number N14053. It took off from JFK International Airport at 9:14:29 A. M. on November 12 , 2001 in clear weather conditions. At 0915:44.7, the captain Edward States asked, â€Å"little wake turbulence, huh? † to which the first Officer, Sten Molin, replied, at 0915:45. 6, â€Å"yeah. † At 9:15:51, when the plane was 2,000 feet and was over Jamaica Bay, the first officer initiated a series of emergency control inputs and called for the emergency â€Å"escape† maneuver. During the wake turbulence encounter, the airplane’s pitch angle increased from 9? to 11. 5? , decreased to about 10? , and increased again to 11?. At 9:16:01. 9, F. O. Molin was heard on ATC uttering â€Å"losing control.†The airplane crashed 13 seconds later, it was airborne for less than 106 seconds. At 0915:58. 5, the CVR (Cockpit Voice Recorder) recorded the sound of a loud bang. At that time, the airplane was traveling at an airspeed of about 251 knots. â€Å"Hang onto it, Hang onto it,† were the last words of the Captain Edward States, as recorded on the CVR The Crew Background The captain was 42 years of age and the first officer 34. They were hired by American Airlines in July 1985, and March 1991 respectively. The captain had 1,922 hours total flyingtime in military and general aviation before his employment with American Airlines, and 8,050 hours total flying time thereafter which included 3,448 hours as pilot-in-command and 1,723 hours as a pilot-in-command for A300 specifically. His last proficiency check took place on June 21, 2001; and his last pilot-in-command line check occurred on July 31, 2001. He consumed alcohol sparingly and never during a time around his work schedule. According to a colleague, he was an extremely good pilot, very relaxed and competent.The first officer had 3,220 hours total flying time in commercial and general aviation before his employment with American Airlines, and 4,403 hours total flying time, which included 1,835 hours as second-in-command for A300 specifically. Both the captain and the first of ficer had no FAA records that indicated any incident history or enforcement action. One pilot who worked with the first officer, however, described him as being â€Å"very aggressive† on the rudder pedals after a wake turbulence encounter. Except for that, his overall skills were described as excellent, and â€Å"well above the norm. †The 5M ConceptThe 5M concept is a risk assessment tool used to graphically illustrate how the dynamic interaction of the man, the machine and the media (that is, environment) converge to produce either a successful mission or if unsuccessful, a mishap. Man-category encompasses aircrew members, their training, selection, proficiency, habit patterns, performance, and personal factors. Factors under â€Å"performance† heading include awareness, perceptions, saturation, distraction, channelized attention, stress, confidence, adaptive skills, and fatigue (physical, motivational, sleep deprivation, circadian rhythm, klutz).â€Å"Persona l factors† include job satisfaction, values, families/friends, command/control, discipline (internal and external), and communication skills. The Machine-category encompasses the various design, maintenance, logistics, and other technical data related to the aircraft. The Media is the environment in which aircrew fly and includes factors and forces that are related to climactic, operational, hygienic conditions. The fourth category is the management. Management regulates standards, procedures, and controls.The interaction between the 4M’s Man, Media, Machine, and Management determine the desired outcome, or the Mission. When outcome fails to meet anticipated goals, these 5 M’s must be thoroughly reassessed (Civil Air Patrol). The Shell Model The factors that affect the outcome of each flight can be assessed under the SHELL Model: Software, Hardware, Environment, Liveware (outer ring) and Liveware (inner ring). Software is what makes the system work, and includes guidelines, regulations, operation specifications, and company policy and procedures.Hardware is the physical equipment that is necessary for a flight to operate. The category â€Å"Environment† relates to the broad external context that can affect the flight or the pilot, and includes factors such as weather, g-forces, and ambient light. Liveware represents the human factors. The outer ring includes air traffic controllers, flight service briefers, dispatchers, other crewmembers, pilots of other aircraft, flight attendants.The inner ring is the most important part of the SHELL model and includes various variables affecting the competence and performance of the pilots (Shields 2002). The NTSB Findings The NTSB officials very early on in the investigation suggested the cause of the crash might be due to wake turbulence from an aircraft that departed earlier. However, many experts doubted that the light turbulence from such an encounter would register on the scale of the type o f extreme turbulence that aircraft undergo from atmospheric disturbances such as in the vicinity of thunderstorms.Commercial jets are built to withstand forces up to 2. 5 G-forces, while the turbulence that hit the plane was one tenth of a G-force — barely strong enough to be even noticed (Dyer 2002). The Board then suggested that the composite vertical stabilizer may be faulty. However, this does not address the numerous reports of reliable witnesses, such as policemen and firemen, concerning fire and explosions coming from the aircraft before the vertical stabilizer ripped from the aircraft.Finally, after three years of investigations, National Transportation and Safety Board stood by its wake turbulence hypothesis. However, it was only a triggering event. The report, under the heading â€Å"Probable Cause† placed most of the blame on the first office for his â€Å"unnecessary and excessive rudder pedal inputs. † It goes on to say, â€Å"Contributing to these rudder pedal inputs were characteristics of the Airbus A300-600 rudder system design and elements of the American Airlines Advanced Aircraft Maneuvering Program† (NTSB 2004).The NTSB's conclusion was that the cause of the crash was the tail separating from the fuselage, which happened as a result of pilot placing loads on the tail that exceeded its ultimate limit – which in turn was an outcome of pilot’s rudder movements. He put excessive pressure on the rudder pedal in response to the wake turbulence caused by the JAL flight that preceded them. But why did the pilot move the rudder pedals as aggressively as he did? This became an issue of great controversy.The NTSB report dwells on the previously observed tendency of the first officer to place inappropriate pedal inputs, which in tandem with two other reasons, the deficient pilot training system and the defective Airbus rudder control system, resulted in a colossal disaster: The Safety Board’s investigat ion determined that three main factors influenced the first officer’s rudder use during the accident sequence: a tendency to react aggressively to wake turbulence, as evidenced by his responses to previous wake turbulence encounters; his pilot training, including the training he received at American Airlines regarding wake turbulence, upset recovery, and rudder pedal use; and the characteristics of the A300-600 rudder control system. (NTSB 2004)These findings resulted in a mammoth row between Airbus and American Airlines is –– with Airbus contending that the first officer’s inappropriate response caused because of his improper training by American Airlines, and the American Airlines contending the Airbus’ rudder pedal system unusually sensitive.The NTSB RecommendationsThe NTSB report discusses several safety issues relevant to the Flight 587 disaster, focusing on characteristics of the A300-600 rudder control system design, A300-600 rudder pedal in puts at high airspeeds, aircraft-pilot coupling, flight operations at or below an airplane’s design maneuvering speed, and upset recovery training programs. Airbus Industrie and American Airlines have acted upon industry-wide amendments to ensure safety of operation of aircraft.American Airlines continue to operate the Airbus A300, Airbus are confident of the structural and functional integrity of their plane – although many AA pilots and those of other airlines sought transfer to supposedly much more stable Boeing airplanes in the wake of the disaster. Conclusion New Yorkers may be resilient, But they have their breaking points, And they must be getting close to them. Like all of us, they want to believe That something like a shorting wire, Exploding fuel tank, or malfunctioning turbofan Is the reason at least 265 perished in Queens. – L. D. Brodsky. (2002).The biggest unresolved issue in this entire tragic episode of Flight 587 crash were the flames and the ex plosions noted by over 50% of over 400 witnesses. In its report, the NTSB attributes them to either an â€Å"initial release of fuel† or the â€Å"effects of engine compressor surges. † Both of them could have been caused due to out-of-control motion during the airplane's precipitous descent. However, one must remember that the airplane had just took over and was not at a great height, and most importantly that the witnesses observed the fire before anything else happened.In effect, the fire could not have been set off during the descent and as a result of the descent. Most of the witnesses are unequivocal about it and stand vehemently by their testimony to this day. Many quarters have felt that the NTSB prematurely declared the crash to be an accident and hastily concluded that the tail separation was the initiating event without adequate analysis of all the evidence, and especially without giving proper credence to witness testimony – and later went on to bols ter its convenient preconceived notions.Today, claims of NTSB cover-up and conspiracy theories pointing to terrorist involvement abound around this subject – making the tragedy of flight 587 a lingering mystery.References:Brodsky, L. D. (2002). Shadow War: A Poetic Chronicle of September 11 and Beyond, Volume Two. St. Louis, Missouri : Time Being Books Civil Air Patrol. Civil Air Patrol Guide to Operational Risk Management. Retrieved 3 March 2007 from www. orwg. cap. gov/Safety/CAPguidetoORM. pdf Dyer, N. (2002). The Mystery of Flight 587?What Caused the Crash of Flight 587? Science World. Feb 25 2002. Retrieved 3 March 2007 from http://www. findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_m1590/is_10_58/ai_83667600Manning, S. D. (2004). American Dream, A Search for Justice. New York : A&M Publishing NTSB News (2001).American Airlines Flight 587. National Transportation and Safety Board. 12 November 2001. Retrieved 3 March 2007 from http://www. ntsb. gov/events/2001/AA587/default. htm   NTS B News. (2002).Fourth Update on NTSB Investigation into Crash of American Airlines Flight 587. National Transportation and Safety Board. January 15, 2002. Retrieved 3 March 2007 from http://www. ntsb. gov/Pressrel/2002/020115. htm NTSB. (2004).Aircraft Accident Report. National Transportation and Safety Board. October 26, 2004. Retrieved 3 March 2007 from http://www. ntsb. gov/publictn/2004/AAR0404. pdf Shields. J. (2002).SHELL Model. Josh's Little Aviation Place on the Web. Retrieved 3 March 2007 from http://people. aero. und. edu/~jshields/CRM/shell_model. htm